Abstract. It seems central that the Biblical prophets prophesied within the framework of the Levitic Covenant (conditional) paradigm. If so, a historical exegesis cannot afford to ignore this Covenant world-view. Even a cursory exegetical outline of Revelation makes this evident. The richly-allusive circulating epistle of Revelation begins by proclaiming Jesus Christ, proceeds with the Covenant and brings the audience to the Christ.
 

Introduction

The following chapter by chapter outline suggests in very brief sketch a historical exegesis of Revelation. Our purpose is to allow the text speak for itself as far as possible, with little comment. It is our conviction that when Revelation speaks for itself, it will preach the Gospel of Jesus Christ. It seems axiomatic that Revelation was written (as were the rest of the NT epistles and 'gospels') to specific 1st century CE audiences, alive with the faith of the crucified and risen Christ, and the immediate expectation of the eschaton and the rapid return of Jesus (Rev. 1:3;  etc.). The most accurate way to recapture that immediacy is to at least attempt to determine (1) the text (provided by critical consensus text editions of the NT), (2) oral / literary form, (3) historical life situation, (4) meaning of words and idiom for the original author and audience, and (5) total context and Scriptural background of each passage. (Please see Appendix 1). As we seek the contemporary urgency of the 1st century Christian hope, we must plunge into their world and into the rich tapestry of allusions to the Hebrew scriptures and typology, as well as to the traditions about Jesus. As we recapture their contemporary urgency, we will grasp in clearer perspective how we should understand and preach the Gospel as we again draw near to the long-delayed consummation and Advent.

(1) The text. Without introducing the complexities of the history of this (like any Biblical) text, we seek below an accurate reading of the text of Revelation. Listening to the voice of the surviving 'naked' text is where the study of Revelation should begin and ultimately end. One very significant feature of the text that has been noticed by many scholars is that Revelation was written in a cadenced, Hebraic-style Greek – the Greek of Revelation is completely unique, very Hebraistic in usage, syntax, and even in grammatical construction (Charles, 1920).⁽¹⁾ Likewise, in allusions and references to the Hebrew Scriptures, the author of Revelation seems to have often translated directly from the Hebrew (or Aramaic in the case of portions of Daniel) without help from the Greek LXX version.⁽²⁾ At other times he seems to have translated from the Hebrew with the help of the LXX or a later revised LXX (which in turn was further revised and incorporated after the writing of Revelation in Theodotion's text).

(2) Literary form – an apocalyptic circulating epistle. Revelation is a late 1st century CE work written within the later Hebrew prophetic and intertestamental apocalyptic traditions with an emphasis on symbols and typology, and also bears marks of a NT epistle: Opening greetings of "grace to you and peace" to "seven church that are in Asia" (1:4) and closing with "the grace of the Lord Jesus be with all" (22:21). (See Beale, 1999). Between the NT epistolary elements of chs. 1-3 and 22, Revelation in the middle sections proceeds in the apocalyptic literary tradition. This suggests a literary genre – an apocalyptic circulating epistle. Revelation seems to be a an apocalyptic circulating epistle sent to seven prominent Christian churches in western Asia Minor in a time of spiritual crisis and intermittent persecution for the church in the Roman Empire. It was also a time when the last of the contemporary generation of believers and disciples who remembered Jesus of Nazareth were passing from the scene. The 'circulating' character of the epistle seems to be supported by the numerous manuscript fragments of Revelation reported to have been discovered in the ancient cities of Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamon, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea (MT Olsen, pers. comm. to a member of JIF). The first epistle of Peter also from the late 1st century CE seems likewise to have been a circulating epistle addressed to the persecuted disciples as "strangers scattered throughout Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia" (I Pet. 1:1, 6-7). Like 1st Peter, Revelation was written to real people with real strengths and weaknesses in real places in a real times of historical crisis. Any exegetical outline must begin here, with us seated (as far as possible) in those late 1st century assemblies of hopeful Christian believers expectant and listening to the words of the Revelation.

(3) Historical setting and date (see Thomas, 1979). Revelation is a tightly-structured series of visions internally attributed to a certain John exiled to Patmos because of 'the witness of Jesus' (Rev. 1). Sources in the early church held that the Apostle John was banished to the Isle of Patmos by the emperor Domitian (81-96 CE) who in his persecution of Christians made free use of exile. Some early sources place John's exile in the 14th year of Domitian (95 CE). Revelation is addressed to seven Christian churches in Asia Minor each of which show individual development and characteristics. The 7 cities cited in Roman Asia were important centers arranged in a circular rout with Ephesus being nearest to the Isle of Patmos, although the use of the number 7 may also indicate completeness and thus also be intended to address the universal church (Sweet, 1993). Numerous fragments of Revelation reported to have been found on the western Anatolian peninsula indicate its wide circulation at the close of the 1st century CE. Arguments in recent decades about an early (pre-70 CE) or late 1st century dating have often hinged in part on attempts to identify under which Roman emperor the epistle was written, or even on speculation about which succession of Roman emperors were alluded to by symbol in Revelation.

Authorship. Although the authorship of Revelation was disputed in later centuries, John (Rev. 1:1, 4, 9; 22:8) the apostle of Jesus was attested to be the author of Revelation in the early church (Justin Martyr, 2nd century CE in Dialogue with Trypho the Jew, ch. 81; Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, ca. 70-150 CE in Against the heresies; Irenaeus, ca. 180 CE). (See Thomas, 1979). Also number of language usage similarities link the 4th Gospel, the Epistle, and Revelation (Ibid.): (1) Logos is applied to Jesus Christ. (2) "the Lamb" is applied to Christ Himself, not merely as a symbol or type of Christ. (3) The usage of the term alethinos, 'that which is true,' is frequent (10 times in Revelation, 9 times in the 4th Gospel, 4 times in the Epistle, and only once in the Pauline epistles). (4) The nikos of 'he who overcomes' is frequently used in the Epistle and in Revelation. (5) The Levitic sanctuary allusion using the verb skenou 'to tabernacle' as a synonym for 'dwell' is applied to God's word in Christ and found only in the 4th Gospel in John 1:14 and in Revelation (13:6; 15:5; 21:3) in Covenant fulfillment terms.

(4) Meaning and idiom and (5) Scriptural context and background in Revelation. Revelation has a multitude of allusions to the writings of the Hebrew Scriptures in their Levitic Covenant framework. Prominent among these are references to Daniel and to the ancient sanctuary services. The Levitic Covenant framework is key to understanding Revelation, as we have begun to point out by noting the septenary sabbatical structure and Covenant underpinnings of this apocalyptic epistle. The symbolic numbers, especially 7s – 7 Spirits of God, 7 lampstands, 7 churches, 7-eyed / 7-horned Lamb, 7 seals, 7 trumpets, 7 bowls, 7 thunders, 7-headed / 10-horned dragon, 7 hills / mountains, a broken 7 (3 ½ times = 42 months = 1260 days), 24 elders, 12 tribes, 12 apostles, 12 foundations, 12 gates, 12,000 sealed from each of 12 tribes (144,000), 10 horns, 10 days of affliction, 4 living creatures, 4 horses, 4 angels, 4 winds, 4 altar horns, 3 angels, 3 unclean spirits, 2 witnesses, etc. – all contribute to the symbolic fabric of Revelation, and as we shall note, usually have deep roots and significance in the Levitic Covenant and other images from the Hebrew Scriptures.

Interpretation. Rather than comment extensively on interpretation, we will seek a straightforward 'hearing of the text on its own terms.' To assist in this, we use a color-coded system below to elucidate allusions to the Hebrew Scriptures, the traditions about Jesus, earlier NT epistles, extrabiblical sources, and other parts of Revelation. Insights of various commentators will also be cited and referenced at times⁽³⁾. As we learn more, our online exegetical outline of Revelation will be updated and expanded, hopefully a little like the oral traditions of the early Jesus movement itself.
 

Priestly allusions to the Levitic Covenant sanctuary. The center of attention is Jesus Christ the crucified, risen, and soon-coming Son of man clothed and standing in priestly judgment, among the 7 golden lampstands (Rev. 1:12-20). As we shall see, all the sanctuary allusions in Revelation have a judgment setting, a Day of Atonement setting (to be developed as we go), even while including echoes of all the various festivals of the Hebrew year. This is consistent with the early Christian belief expressed in many places elsewhere in the NT that since Christ and Calvary, we are living on the verge of 'the kingdom of God' in the antitypical (Jubilee) Day of Atonement, a time of judgment and Gospel expectation. The very Danielic 'kingdom of God' proclamation of Jesus of Nazareth himself in the Galilee a few decades earlier (Mark 1:15) is consistent with this and foundational. So it is not surprising that at the outset in Revelation 1, Jesus the Son of man is pictured in high priestly array among the 7 golden candlesticks. We are reminded of how the ancient high priest on the previous evening, at the opening of the 10th day of the 7th month, the Day of Atonement (Lev. 16), performed his 'daily' task of dressing the 7-branch menorah – 'the daily' tasks continuing on the Day of Atonement (cf. Heb. tamid in Ex. 27:21; Lev. 24:3; see espec. Num. 29:7-11). This was the high priest's first act on the Day of Atonement. Here likewise Revelation begins as the antitypical High Priest opens his "judgment at the house of God" (I Pet. 4:7, 17) – in this epistle, specifically those actual, historical "seven churches which are in Asia" (Rev. 1:4).

Armstrong K. 2004. The spiral staircase: My climb out of darkness. New York: Anchor Books, a division of Random House, Inc.

Aune D. 1997. Revelation. (Vol. 1: Revelation 1-5). In: DA Hubbard and GW Barker (Gen. eds.), JDW Watts (OT ed.), RP Martin (NT ed.), Word Biblical Commentary (52A). Dallas, TX: Word Books, Word, Inc.

Barr J. 1993. "History of interpretation: Modern Biblical criticism." In: BM Metzger and MD Coogan (eds.), The Oxford companion to the Bible. New York, NY / Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Beale GK. 1999. The book of Revelation: A commentary on the Greek text. In: H Marshall and DA Hagner (eds.), The New International Greek Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids, MI / Cambridge, UK: William B Eerdmans Pub. Co. AND Carlisle, Cumbria, UK: The Paternoster Press.

Charles RH (D.Litt., D.D.). 1920. A critical and exegetical commentary on the Revelation of St. John, with introduction, notes, and indices, also the Greek text and English translations. (Vol. I). In: SR Driver (D.D.), A Plummer (D.D.), and CA Briggs (D.D.) [eds.], The International Critical Commentary. Edinburgh, Scotland: T & T Clark.

Christoffel L. 2002. "The Sabbatical structure of Revelation." The Jesus Institute Forum: http://www.jesusinstituteforum.org/RevChart.html.

Ford D. 1982. Crisis! A commentary on the book of Revelation. (Vol. 2). Newcastle, CA: Desmond Ford Publications.

Greer L. 2002. "Atonement and the Revelation: Levitic Covenant underpinnings." The Jesus Institute Forum: http://www.jesusinstituteforum.org/LevCovRev.html.

Kline MG. 1963. Treaty of the great king – The covenant structure of Deuteronomy: Studies and commentary. Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.

Krentz E. 1975. The historical-critical method. Guides to Biblical scholarship. Philadelphia, PA: Fortress Press.

Sweet J. 1993. "The book of Revelation." In: BM Metzger and MD Coogan (eds.), The Oxford companion to the Bible. New York, NY / Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Thomas RL (NT editor). 1979. Introduction to Revelation in The New American Standard Bible, the Open Bible edition. Nashville, TN / Camden / New York, NY: Thomas Nelson, Publishers.

The basics of the method of historical-critical exegesis commonly recognized among biblical scholars today (Barr, 1993; adapted after citation in Krentz, 1975):

• (1) Determination of the text – comparative textual analysis, critical consensus editions of all available manuscripts and variant readings.
• (2) Ascertaining the literary (/oral) form of the passage – literary criticism, form criticism, etc. This includes giving due weight to the absence of elements which have often traditionally been read into the text eisegetically. This also involves not only noting similarities but also differences between different Biblical texts (in wording and in thought and form).
• (3) Recovering the contemporary historical / life situation (Sitz im Leben) of the text – the contemporary life setting in a particular Biblical epoch as determined through chronology, archaeology, studies in contemporary culture and geography, etc.
• (4) Meaning of the words and idiom for original author and listener-reader – comparative contemporary linguistics, philology, and literature; contemporary cultural world of meaning and ideas.
• (5) Understanding the passage in its total context and in the background in which it emerged – contemporary historical events and movements, literary and traditional sources, contemporary cultural world of meaning and ideas, concerns of the original author and audience, editorial redaction, etc. It means also understanding the differential placement of stories and pericopes based on the author's own theological and rhetorical intentions.

The suzerain covenant-treaty form commonly utilized in the Hebrew Scriptures and also echoed at times in the Greek NT (Greer, 2002; adapted from Kline, 1963):

• I. Identificatory preamble – identification of suzerain and vassal in 'I-thou' formulation – could include treaty mediator-testator (sometimes = suzerain himself & his successors)
• Suzerain opened with "These are the words of ...." – cf. opening of Ten Commandments, of Deuteronomy, and the "Thus says YAHWEH" formula of the prophets
• (Sometimes an opening invocation of Covenant witnesses; e.g., to the heavens and the earth, see texts under IV below)
• II. Historical recital (prologue) – Recital of past relations between suzerain & vassal
• Suzerain's Litany of benevolent deeds & accomplishments
• benefits derived for the vassal (to inspire confidence and gratitude)
• also can include litany or record of rebellion by the ungrateful vassal
• III. Covenant / Treaty stipulations – commandments often in apodictic form 'thou shalt not'
• Exclusive fealty to the suzerain – e.g., One God, no other gods permitted in Israel (Ex. 20:1-7)
• Suzerain's dynastic seal / sign – e.g., Sabbath, 'sign of the Covenant' (Ex. 31:13-17; 20:8-11 ~ Deut. 5:12-15)
• Specific commandments – "thou shalt not..., remember..., honor..."
• IV. Covenant / Treaty ratification & sanctions – Blessings vs. curses
• Covenant Oath & witnesses: Invocation of the suzerain's gods (& vassal's gods in Hittite) – Only one God in Israel hence apostrophic oath of an appeal to the heavens and earth as witnesses (Deut. 4:26; 30:19; 31:28; 32:1; cf. Ps. 19; Dan. 12; Rev. 11)
• Sacrificial ratification in 'cutting' a covenant & implied self-maledictory oath (Gen. 15, Ex. 24)
• Benedictions, promisory benefits – protection and military victory over the enemies of the vassal, because the vassal's enemies become the suzerain's enemies
• Maledictions-imprecations, penal sanctions
• V. Covenant / Treaty perpetuity – re-ratification & succession to future generations
• Duplicate tablet copies for suzerain & vassal – 2 tablets of stone of Covenant / testimony
• One tablet placed in suzerain's sanctuary & other in vassal's sanctuary – in Israel there was only one sanctuary of 'meeting' or 'assembly' for YAHWEH and Israel, so both tablets placed there
• Tablet placed "under (the feet of)" the suzerain's god – Tablets under the Mercy Seat in the Ark of the Covenant of YAHWEH (Exod. 25:22) which also was the 'place of atonement' (Lev. 16)
• Dynastic mediator-testator's death & testament – Moses' testament and death (Num. 27:12-14; Deut. 33-34), Jacob's testament and death (Gen. 49); Christ's testament and death (Heb. 9-10).
• Dynastic succession – Moses-Joshua succession (Deut.-Josh.); Christ as dynastic Son of David (Ps. 110; Mark 12:35-37 = Matt. 22:41-46 = Luke 20:41-44), as perpetual dynastic Melchizedeq king-high priest (Ps. 110; Hebrews; cf. 11Q13), as dynastic Son of man (Ps. 80; Dan. 7; the 4 gospels).
• Suzerain's royal land grant to vassal – land of Caanan for Israel (Pentateuch), 'New Jerusalem' and the 'new heaven and new earth' (Isaiah 66; II Peter; Revelation; etc.).
• Repetition, renewal and periodic public reading of the covenant / treaty – Deut. 5:6-21; 31:9-31; cf. Ezra.