The Jesus Institute Forum

The nature of God – Part 4
Micah 5 & Isaiah 9:1-7

The Davidic messianic king in the Hebrew prophets
of the 8th-6th centuries BCE

Lee F Greer III
Loma Linda, California
© 2005
Prepared for the CHC Rose Room Sabbath school class
of Larry Christoffel & the members of JIF

Abstract. YHWH's covenant promise to David and his house (II Samuel 7) includes the coming of a final Davidic king who is to reign forever as YHWH's vassal ruler and agent to establish peace and justice on earth, to whom YHWH delegates divine agency, exalted titles and prerogatives to accomplish His aims on earth. The 8th-6th century Hebrew prophets foresaw the Davidic king as finally restoring a final 'golden age' when the severed kingdoms of Israel and Judah would be re-united in righteousness forever.

Introduction & method – listening to the text in its own context

(1) Determination of the text(s). The Hebrew Masoretic Text (MT) is well established in these passages.

Text
Micah 5 MT
Context
....1Now band together, daughter of a troop; one sets a seige against us; with a rod they strike upon the cheek the one judging [shaphat] Israel.
2But you, O Bethlehem Ephrathah, 
little among the thousands of Judah, 
out of you shall come forth [yatsa'] to Me 
one who is to be ruler [mashal] in Israel, 
whose going forth [motsa'ah] is from of old [qedem], 
from ancient days [yemiy olam]. 
3Therefore he shall give them up until the time when she who is in travail has given birth, 
then the rest of his brethren shall return to the sons of Israel.
4And he shall arise and pasture (his flock) 
in the strength of YHWH,
in the majesty of the name of YHWH his God. 
And they shall dwell secure, 
for now he shall be great to the ends of the earth.
5And this (one) shall be peace. 
When the Assyrian comes into our land 
and treads upon our citadels,
we will raise against him [Assyria] seven shepherds 
and eight princes of men.
6They shall de-pasture the land of Assyria with the sword, 
and the land of Nimrod with the drawn sword; 
and they shall deliver us from the Assyrian 
when he comes into our land 
and treads within our border.
7Then the remnant of Jacob shall be in the midst of many peoples 
like dew from YHWH, 
like showers upon the grass, 
which delay not for men 
nor wait for the sons of men.
8And the remnant of Jacob shall be among the nations, 
in the midst of many peoples, 
like a lion among the beasts of the forest, 
like a young lion among the flocks of sheep, 
which, if he passes through, tramples down and tears in pieces, and there is none to deliver.
9Your hand shall be lifted up over your adversaries, 
and all your enemies shall be cut off.
10And in that day, says YHWH, 
I will cut off your horses from among you 
and I will destroy your chariots;
11and I will cut off the cities of your land 
and throw down all your fortifications.
12And I will cut off sorceries from your hand, 
and soothsayers shall not be there for you.
13And I will cut off your carved images 
and your pillars from among you, 
and you shall bow down no more to the work of your hands;
14and I will root out your Asherim from among you 
and destroy your cities.
15And I will act in anger and in fury vengeance 
upon the nations such as they have not heard.
 v1 – The MT of Micah 5 begins with v2, but we preserve the more familiar versing. 

v2 – Poetic apostrophe addressed to Bethlehem! 'Come forth,' yatsa', verb qal imperfect 3rd person masculine singular: v. to go or come out; motsa'ah, noun common feminine plural construct suffix 3rd person masculine singular: Going forth, origin, family descent. There is a play on words between yatsa' and motsa'ah. qedem, noun common masculine singular absolute: aforetime, anciently. By combining yom (n. days) and olam (n. m. long duration, antiquity, futurity; sometimes meaning 'forever' sometimes idiomatically meaning a far-removed time), we get yemiy olam, (incl. pl. of yom) – Together they invariably form a Hebrew idiomatic expression equivalent to similar ones in English, 'days of antiquity,' 'ye olden times,' 'days of yore,' 'the good old days,' 'back in the day.' The phrase has the same meaning elsewhere in Micah and wherever it is used in the Hebrew Bible: Deut. 32:7; Isa. 63:9, 11; (cf. 51:9;) Amos 9:11; Mal. 3:4; Micah 7:14-15. Kindred phrases meaning 'the days of old' or 'the olden days' are yamim miqedem (Ps. 77:5 143:5) or yemiy qedem (Mic. 7:20; Jer. 46:26; Lam. 1:7; 2:17. The close inter-relation between these words can be seen by the parallel equivalence between yamim miqedem ('days of old') and the idiomatic shenot olamim ('years of antiquity', lit. 'antiquities') in Ps. 77:5. The idiomatic inter-relation is further illustrated in Micah 5:2, where there is a parallel equivalence between 'of old' (qedem) and 'days of antiquity' (yemiy olam). 

  • Simply put, the messianic Davidic king is the "... one who is to be ruler in Israel, whose 'going outs,' or descent is from of old, from days of antiquity," i.e., his family lineage goes back to David in Bethlehem of old. 
v3 – Context of 'labor-travail' in Mic. 4:7, 10. 'Rest of brethren return,' an allusion to a future Davidic re-uniting of Judah and the northern tribes, also in Isaiah 11, part of the Isaianic-Ahaz oracle (Isa. 7-12) discussed below.

v4 – The coming Davidic shepherd king will be go forth as the vassal of YHWH his God, the one true God. Davidic allusion to the shepherd of Israel, II Samuel 7, cf. Mic. 7:14-15. Greatness of the Davidic king: Ps 72:8; Isa 40:11; 49:10; 52:13; Eze 34:23; Mic 7:14; Zec 9:10; cf. Lu 1:32. 

v5-6 – When the Assyrian attacks, shepherds will be raised up who will de-pasture Assyria, conquer them in battle with the sword.

v7-9 – The remnant of Jacob will remain among the nations, both as the gentle dew and as the strong and conquering lion – all her enemies will be cut off

v10-15 – In that day when this is fulfilled, YHWH will also purge away from Israel

  • War – Horses, chariots, and fortifications
  • Urban injustice – Your cities (a polemic against urbanization and its injustices is found in these 8th century BCE prophetic oracles, Schniedewind, 2004)
  • Divination – Sorceries & soothsayers
  • Idolatry – Carved images, pillars, the work of your hands, the Asherim (mother goddesses in wood),
YHWH's final acts will be in fury and vengeance unheard of by the nations heretofore. All of this is in the context of YHWH's triumph through His vassal and agent, the Davidic king.

[See literary-oral form outlines for both passages below.]
Text
Isaiah 9 MT
Context
....1Yet (there will be) no gloom for which anguish is hers, as in the earlier time when He [God] degraded the land of Zebulun and the land of Naphtali, but in the latter time He will glorify the way of the sea, beyond the Jordan, Galilee of the nations.
2The people who walk in darkness 
have seen a great light; 
those who dwelt in a land of death-shadow, 
light has shown on them.
3You have multiplied the nation, 
Will You not increase their gladness? 
They will be glad in Your presence 
(as) merrymaking in harvest, 
(as those) rejoicing when they divide the spoil.
4For the yoke of his burden 
and the staff of his shoulder, 
the rod of him oppressing,
You have broken as (in) the day of Midian!
5For every sandal of the trampler 
(is) with quaking, 
and a cloak rolled in blood 
shall be for burning, fuel for the fire.
6For a child's born to us, 
a son's given to us; 
and the dominion is upon his shoulder, 
and his name is proclaimed [qera' shemi] 
a wonder [pele'], 
a counsel(or) [ya'ats], 
a divine-warrior ['el gibbor], 
a father forever / for all time to come [ab ya'ad], 
a prince of peace [sar shalom]."
7To the abundance of the dominion 
and of peace, there is no end, 
on the throne of David and over his kingdom, 
to establish it and to uphold it 
with justice and righteousness 
from then on until forevermore [ad olam]. 

The zeal of YHWH of hosts will accomplish this.

 Part of a prophetic oracle (ch. 7-12) given to Ahaz, king of southern Judah of the house of David, under attack by Rezin, Syrio-Palestinian king of Aram and Pekah, king of Israel to the north (~late 730s BCE). (See II Kings 16:5 and post-exilic re-telling in II Chron. 28:5-6). 

v1-2 – The MT of Isa. 9 begins with v2, but we preserve the common versing. 
   Interestingly, the land of darkness and 'death-shade' is the land of Zebulon and Naphtali, associated with the northern kingdom of Israel, as is 'the way of the sea', trans-Jordan, and 'Galilee of the nations'

v4 – In a sense, the yoke, staff, and rod of oppression have already been broken because the child-son has already been born 'and the dominion is upon his shoulder' (v6). The phrase 'the day of Midian' is idiomatic for the day when ancient Midian lost the battle.

v5 – In a sense, the fear & quaking of the trampling oppressor has already begun because of the child-son has already been born 'and the dominion is upon his shoulder' (v6)

v6 – The proclamation of the child's name lists the order of his career: (1) a wonder / sign at birth & young (pele'), (2) a counsel(or), (3) a God-warrior, (4) a father of the age to come, and (5) finally after all a prince of peace – In sum, a mighty divinely-comissioned warrior-king will bring deliverance & peace. 

gibbor – ~158 times, generally in terms of a mighty warrior or valiant man of war, or one strong in battle. (Varied usage of 'el summarized in Part 1).
'el gibbor – a 'God-warrior' or 'divine hero' (so Moffat, Luther; Graesar et al. 2003) idiomatic, titular expression through gibbor (mighty [one]) suggestive of 'a mighty warrior' including the idea of a divinely-empowered mighty man of valor – can be applied to both divine and human warriors (Isa. 9:6; 10:20-24; Ezek. 32:20; cf. Ps. 78:65-6). Used in parallel with "Adonai YHWH of hosts" (with suzerainty covenant Lord of armies associations), as Israel's Holy One and their Mighty Warrior or Warrior God, 'El Gibbor in Isa. 10:20-24. Also used for humans with the plural of 'el gibbor to describe fallen 'mighty warriors' calling out of Sheol in Ezek. 32:20. Indeed, it is like the idiom 'a Godsend' applied to someone or something appearing just at the right time as if sent by God. This is not the only time a divine title is bestowed upon a Davidic king as YHWH's vassal who is 'elohim under YHWH his 'Elohim, Ps. 45. The title of 'YHWH (is) our righteousness' is applied to both the Davidic king and the redeemed Jerusalem in Jer. 23:5-6; 33:14-15.

`ad – means 'until' (49 times) and the extension is a directional duration whether delimited or perpetual.

v7 – The zeal of YHWH of hosts (a military title suffix) accomplishes all this. 
Throughout both prophetic oracles, the great suzerain king, YHWH Himself is clearly distinguished from His agent and vassal, the Davidic king to come. All the power, authority, titles, honors, exercised prerogatives and accomplishments of the latter are simply the generous grant and delegation of the Former.

(2) Ascertaining the literary / oral form. In its present form, Micah 5 is in tightly-woven Hebrew poetic parallelism, and is part of a larger Zion-Davidic oracle (Mic. 4-5) which begins with an eschatological Zion hymn shared with Isaiah (=Isa. 2:2-4; Vawter, 1993). The is replete with specific Davidic covenant terminology and general suzerainty covenant overtones in a setting of oppression, war, and deliverance.

Outline of Micah's Zion-Davidic oracle:

Isaiah 9 is part of a prophetic oracle (ch 7-12) to the house of David under Ahaz, also rich with allusions to a final restoration of a united Israel under the house of David.

Outline of Isaiah's Davidic oracle (ch. 7-12; general interval 735-715 BCE):

These descriptions of the messianic Davidic king owe almost every detail to the Davidic covenant (II Samuel 7) and the royal Davidic psalms. YHWH and His comissioned vassal king are clearly distinguished as Principal and agent (shaliach motif).

(3) Recovering the contemporary historical life situation (setting). The oracle of Micah 5 was given by Micah of Moresheth-gath, a western Judean highlander, who called for an end to idolatry and economic exploitation from the viewpoint of a rural inhabitant outside Jerusalem (Vawter, 1993). In a time of turmoil when Assyria was menacing the northern kingdom and threat, and rising rural-urban tensions, the hearers would have heard the oracles of a messianic Davidic restoration first in terms of the reforming king Hezekiah himself. Ultimately it must point to Hezekiah's Davidic progeny, a king yet to come. That was how it was understood by 'the kingdom of God' movement founded by Jesus of Nazareth in the 1st century CE!

The oracle of Isaiah (7-12) was given to Ahaz of the house of David, king of Judah (743-727 BCE including co-regencies; Freedman, 1992; Galil, 1996) when under attack by Rezin the Syrian king of Aram in alliance with Pekah, king of the northern kingdom of Israel (735-32 BCE). This oracle (Isa. 7-12) contains at least two and possibly three promissory references to the Davidic covenant and a Davidic restoration (7:17; 9:1-7; 11:1-2). Although there is evidence for post-exilic redaction and editing of Micah, the core is likely to go back to Micah (Vawter, 1993). The book of Isaiah has a more complex history of collection, editing, and redaction (Sawyer, 1993), but still the early Isaiah including the Isaiah's early Davidic oracle very likely goes back to Isaiah in the late 8th century, the time of Hezekiah.

(4) Meaning of the words and idiom for original author and audience. Of particular interest is the idiomatic expression yemiy olam ("days of antiquity") in Micah 5 which should be clearly understood in order to accurately understand this messianic passage.

An idiomatic expression and its uses: yemiy olam – 'days of antiquity'
  • "Remember the days of antiquity, consider the years of many generations. Ask your father, and he will show you; your elders, and they will tell you. When the Most High ['Elyon] gave to the nations their inheritance, when He separated the sons of men, He fixed the bounds of the peoples according to the number of the sons of Israel. For the portion of YHWH is His people; Jacob His allotted inheritance." (Deut. 32:7-9)
  • "In all their affliction (He [YHWH, v7] was) not a foe, and the angel of His presence saved them. In His love and in His pity He redeemed them, and He lifted them and carried them all the days of antiquity" (Isa. 63:9).
  • "Then He remembered the days of antiquity, (of) Moses. Where is He who brought (them) up out of the sea with the shepherd of His flock [Moses]? Where is He who put within him [Moses] His holy Spirit?" (Isa. 63:11)
  • "In that day I [YHWH, v8] will raise up the booth of David that is fallen and wall up its breaches, and I will raise up its ruins, and rebuild it as (in) the days of antiquity" (Amos 9:11).
  • "But you, O Bethlehem Ephrathah, little among the thousands of Judah, out of you shall come forth to Me, one who is to be ruler in Israel, whose descent is from of old, from days of antiquity" (Micah 5:2).
  • "Pasture Your people with Your rod, the flock of Your possession which dwells by itself (in) the thicket, amidst Carmel. Let them pasture in Bashan and Gilead as (in) days of antiquity" (Micah 7:14).
  • "Then the offering of Judah and Jerusalem will be pleasing to YHWH as in days of antiquity and as in former years." (Mal. 3:4). 

In each passage, the context itself defines the historical reach of the "days of antiquity." If all interpreters had as consistently translated the idiomatic yemiy olam "days of antiquity" in Micah 5:2 as elsewhere, later misunderstandings of this oracle would have been very unlikely. Failure to recognize the idiom has led to unnecessarily complicated interpretations of Micah 5:2 by Arians, Trinitarians, and Unitarians. The 'descent ... from of old' of the messianic shepherd king to come in Micah 5 is the historic lineage of the house of David, begun in the 'days of antiquity' by another Bethlehemite shepherd king named David.

(5) Understanding the total context and historical background. The context of both these passages is the late 8th century BCE, when under the Assyrian military menace and economic 'globalizing' cosmopolitanism of one economy, one polity, and one language (Aramaic; Schniedewind, 2004), urbanization was on the increase throughout the ancient Near East, including the tiny southern kingdom of Judah under Ahaz of the house of David, especially as refugees from the north fled south during the time of king Hezekiah (727-698 BCE; Finkelstein & Silberman, 2001), and later into Jerusalem from the hill country during Senacharib's campaign (~701 BCE).

Between the 9th and 6th centuries, on the socio-economic level, a growing oppression and the resulting tensions between the rural poor ('the people of the land,' 'am ha-aretz) and urban elites had earlier erupted in the 9th century BCE when a coup d'état removed the murderous Athaliah and placed the boy king Jehoash on the throne, so "the people of the land rejoiced but the city was quiet" (II Kings 11:20; Schniedewind, 2004). In many ways Micah was a voice for these "people of the land" (Vawter, 1993; Schniedewind, 2004). The urbanizing events of 7th century would later further exasperate these divisions and after the assassination of Amon, king of Judah (640 BCE), 'the people of the land' ('am ha-aretz) again acted to place Josiah on the throne (639 BCE; II Kings 21:24). The social justice impetus of the prophets from Isaiah to Jeremiah reflects these developing conditions.

Within this general background the threat came from the Syro-Israel alliance against Judah (~735-32 BCE) and the promise of deliverance affirmed through children born as signs and wonders, harbingers of a delivering Davidic king to come. Hopes must have centered initially on the young Hezekiah who had already been born (see Schniedewind, 2004).

The nature of the Davidic messianic king in the 8th-6th century Hebrew prophets (A selection)

Text
Davidic messianic king
Origin
Role
Isaiah 7-12 (Isaianic Ahaz oracle)
  • Imanu'El
  • A child / son born to us
  • A shoot / branch of Jesse (father of David's house)
  • Son of Isaiah or Ahaz (Davidic line)
  • From among us, the house of David
  • From the lineage of Jesse through David
  • A sign of deliverance
  • Conquering Davidic king who will usher an era of peace forever
  • Restore an everlasting Davidic lineage
Isaiah 16:5 A judge sitting in the tabernacle of David i.e., descendent of David Sitting in truth, seeking justice, and hasting righteousness
Hosea 3:5 'David their king' in the 'last days' i.e., a descendent of David Children of Israel (N kingdom especially as estranged from YHWH) will again return after 'many days' to serve YHWH their God, and David their king in the 'last days'
Amos 9:11 The fallen tabernacle of David will raised up again, i.e., a Davidic king  i.e., a descendent of David The kingdom of David will be restored and built up again as in days of antiquity
Jeremiah 17:25 Kings & princes sitting on the throne of David  i.e., a descendent of David Jerusalem will last forever
Jer. 23:5-6; 
33:14-15 (...26)
  • A righteous branch raised up to David, and a king, he will be called, YHWH (is) our righteousness!
  • YHWH will cause a righteous branch to grow up to David, Jerusalem will be called in that day, YHWH (is) our righteousness!
Note that both the Davidic king and Jerusalem are named as exalted agents of YHWH		 i.e., a descendent of David
  • shall reign and prosper, and shall execute judgment and justice in the earth
  • In those days Judah will be saved, And Jerusalem will dwell safely
Jer. 30:9 David their king raised up for them again by YHWH i.e., a descendent of David Liberation from the yoke of foreigners: Israel will be led to serve YHWH their God and David their king raised up for them
(Messianism in post-exilic biblical literature is discussed in the next table)

In the oracular descriptions of the coming messianic Davidic king, all the God-given exalted titles and prerogatives were evidence of the coming king's vassalship under YHWH, the great Suzerain King of the universe. The Davidic king's exalted office was derived from the one God of Israel. What is foretold is in harmony with the ancient Near Eastern Suzerain-vassal covenantal relationship, and consistent with the Hebrew shaliach Principal-agent motif.

In applying Micah 5:2 and Isa. 9:6 to Jesus of Nazareth as the Messiah (Christ), as the son of David, the NT is not only in typological harmony, but is also consistent with the exegetical meaning of the Micaian and Isaianic Ahaz oracles, because Jesus was the son of David, begotten of God not only covenantally as David, but also as the uniquely-begotten Son of the God of heaven. The NT does not depart from the basic Davidic messianic paradigm in applying these texts to Jesus the Christ / Messiah.

Post-exilic Hebrew Bible. After the Judahite monarchy was no more (Babylonian captivity, 586 BCE), the messianic idea continued to develop, in a somewhat different, expanded direction. The motif of the Davidic king remained, but was expanded to include a specific title 'Messiah' and 'Son of man' in Daniel, and the combining of priest and king in Daniel and Zechariah. (of which there are hints in Jeremiah from the 6th century), and Messiah being cut off (Dan. 9) as a 'suffering servant' offering to God (Isa. 53), struck as YHWH's shepherd (Zech. 13). Although Isaiah has a more complex composition history than simply first and second Isaiah (Sawyer, 1993), 'second' Isaiah (ch 40-66) popularly so called, is associated with the post-exilic period. The motif of the Jubilee Day of Atonement redemption-liberation (Lev. 16; 25-26) is found there (Isa. 61; etc.) as it is in Daniel (8-9).

The messiah and messianism in the post-exilic Hebrew Bible (A selection)
(Second Isaiah 40-66, Zechariah, Ezekiel, Daniel, Malachi)

Text
Name / Title
Origin
Role
  1. Isaiah 41:2
  2. 41:25
  3. 42:1
  4. 44:28
  5. 45:1-15
  1. Awakened one called from the east in righteousness (by YHWH)
  2. Awakened one called from the north, and rising of the sun (east)
  3. My servant, My chosen, YHWH's spirit upon him
  4. Cyrus My shepherd
  5. Cyrus, YHWH's anointed (mashiach), girded & raised up in righteousness, directed by YHWH
  1. The east
  2. The east
  3. – 
  4. A heathen nation.... not knowing YHWH
  1. Call on YHWH's name, tread upon rulers like a potter on clay
  2. Nations subdued before him
  3. Establish justice among the nations . . . . 
  4. Fulfill all My will: Peopling of Jerusalem & Judah's cities & rebuilding Jerusalem raising up the temple's foundations
  5. To conquer nations and to liberate Israel's captives, build My city; the nations to come and worship [shachah] supplicating Cyrus, saying, 'Surely God ['El] is in you, there is none else, no other God ['Elohim]...You are a God who hides Yourself' (vs13-15) in Your vassal-agent messiah, Cyrus
Isaiah 53 The 'arm of YHWH' possibly, and My righteous servant Tender plant, root out of dry ground, a man of sorrows.... By suffering, his soul is a sacrifice for sin, bearing iniquities, and justifying many
Isaiah 61 The one anointed (mashach) by 'Adonai YHWH's spirit  –  Proclaim good news to the poor, bind up the broken, announce release and freedom to the imprisoned, to proclaim the acceptable year of YHWH (Jubilee year, Lev. 25) and day of YHWH's vengeance (Yom Kippur, Lev. 16; 25), to comfort mourners and build up the long desolated places (Jubilee restoration, cf. Isaiah 58)
  1. Zechariah 3:8-10
  2. 6:12-15
  3. 9:9-17
  4. To be completed...
  1. My servant, the branch (some have seen a connection with Zerubbabel)
  2. A man named Branch
  3. Zion's king is coming, just, with salvation, humble, riding on a donkey 
  4. To be completed...
  1. – 
  2. Grow out of his place (cf. Isa. 11:1)
  3. (Cit. from Ps. 72; i.e., a Davidic king)
  4. To be completed...
  1. YHWH engraves on 7-eyed stone & removes iniquity of the land in one day & everyone will be safe
  2. Build YHWH's temple, bear the majesty and rule on his throne, be priest on his throne, a counsel of peace between the kingly and the priestly (no more tension)
  3. Coming with salvation, speaking peace to the nations, ruling from sea to sea, from the River (Euphrates) to the ends of the earth (Ps. 72), redeeming the prisoners with the blood of God's covenant....
  4. To be completed...
To be completed... To be completed... To be completed... To be completed...

More comments to follow.
 

Discussion – How do you read?

"Historical criticism has the necessary function of bringing into focus the issues that only faith can decide. . . . We must distinguish between clarity as to what the promise is and certainty that God will fulfill it. The former may be aided by the work of the historian; the latter can rest solely on faith"
(Howard Clark Kee speaking in the debt of Wolfhart Pannenberg; cited in Kee, 1970).

A) Questions from history:

B) Questions of personal commitment: How do you read?
References

Kee HC. 1970. Jesus in history: An approach to the study of the gospels. New York, NY: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc.

Finkelstein I, Silberman NA. 2001. The Bible unearthed: Archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its sacred texts. New York, NY: The Free Press, a division of Simon & Schuster, Inc.

Freedman DN (ed.). 1992. The Anchor Bible Dictionary, 1: 1010. New York, NY.

Galil G. 1996. The chonology of the kings of Israel and Judah. Leiden.

Graesar MH, Lynn JA, Schoenheit JW. 2003. One God & one Lord: Reconsidering the cornerstone of the Christian faith. (3rd ed.). Indianapolis, IN: Christian Educational Services; http://www.CESonline.org; http://www.BiblicalUnitarian.com.

Sawyer JFA. 1993. "The book of Isaiah." In: BM Metzger and MD Coogan (eds.), The Oxford companion to the Bible. New York, NY / Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Schniedewind WM. 2004. How the Bible became a book: The textualization of ancient Israel. Cambridge, UK; New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Vawter B. 1993. "The book of Micah." In: BM Metzger and MD Coogan (eds.), The Oxford companion to the Bible. New York, NY / Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

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