Abstract. Here we introduce the main issues in a nine-part study of the biblical evidence on the nature of God and of Christ. Following is a summary of the defining characteristics of the main historical views of the nature of God and Christ within Christianity (Arian-unitarian, Trinitarian-Athanasian, Unitarian-Socinian, and modal), the method of exegesis, and the main questions, and categories of data we will examine.

In a series of studies, we wish, personally and in open discussion together, to test those claims and their implications. We may never come to full agreement among ourselves, but our purpose is to stimulate free thought and open inquiry among the participants and also via the Internet. We recognize that we are in a small way participating in an ongoing discussion far larger than what we can briefly treat within this nine-part series.

Our explicit method will be biblical exegesis, i.e., what the text meant to the original author-audience in their own times and context. This involves determining (1) the best reading of the text, (2) the literary or oral form, (3) the contemporary life situation of the author-audience, (4) what the words and idiom mean to them, (5) what it meant in its total context and historical background (for elaboration, see Appendix I below). We seek to penetrate beyond centuries of tradition and controversy by a specific querying of every text and passage:

• (A) Is it consistent with at least one of the major views (or more than one, implying that a given text isn't explicit in itself)?
• (B) Is it inconsistent and incompatible with any one or more of the major views?
• (C) What are the implications for the other teachings of Scripture, and for the ethics and witness of the church?

• I. In the Hebrew Scriptures, how is the nature of God and God's word and spirit presented?
• II. What did the Hebrew prophecies proclaim about the nature of the Messiah or Deliverer to come?
• III. In the four gospels (NT), what did Jesus of Nazareth say about God and his relationship to God? How did Jesus' contemporaries understand him, both friends and enemies? Do the four gospels differ among themselves on their  theology and christology?
• IV. After Pentecost in Acts, how did Jesus' followers in the early church understand Jesus Christ and his relationship to God and the outpouring of God's Spirit?
• V. How is Jesus Christ related to God and His Spirit in the NT epistles? How did their contemporaries understand them, both friend and foe?
• VI. What is the relationship of Jesus Christ to God and His Spirit in the Revelation? How does it compare with the Hebrew prophecies and the rest of the NT witness?
• VII. What changes, if any, have crept into the texts of Scripture as a result of the christological controversies of the 4th century CE and their aftermath?
• VIII. How did theology and christology change from the 1st through the 5th centuries CE? What further developments have occurred since the christological controversies of the 4th century? What have been the theological and ethical consequences?

Results & Discussion

Individually, we summarize our considered and growing understanding. We also discuss the nature and implication of these results.

Desideratum: In our joint quest, we desire to recover and cherish a genuine Scriptural faith, to hold fast to the God of Scripture and to Jesus Christ our Lord.

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Berkhof, L., Systematic Theology, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, Michigan, Copyright 1939, 1941 by L. Berkhof.  Fourteenth printing, March 1976. Part One “The Doctrine of God”  Section VIII.  “The Holy Trinity” pages 82-99.

Borg, Marcus J. and Wright, N.T., The Meaning of Jesus Two Visions, Harper, San Francisco, a Division of Harper Colllins Publishers.  Copyright 1999.  See especially Part V:  “Was Jesus God” pages 145-168.

Broughton, James H. and Southgate, Peter J. 1995. The Trinity, True or False? Nottingham, UK: The Dawn Book Supply. A detailed treatment of the nature of God biblically.

Bruce, F.F., “Trinity,” The Interpreters Dictionary of the Bible in Four Volumes, Buttrick, George Arthur (editor), Abingdon Press, Nashville, Tennessee, Copyright 1962, Volume IV, page 711.  Note:  Cites J. R. Harris, The Origin of the Doctrine of the Trinity (1919)

Buzzard AF. n.d. Who is Jesus? A plea for a return to belief in Jesus, the Messiah. Morrow, GA: Atlanta Bible College. Restoration Fellowship: http://www.restorationfellowship.org.

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Canale FL. 2000. "Doctrine of God." Handbook of Seventh-day Adventist theology, Commentary reference series, Vol. 12: 105-159. Hagerstown, MD: Review & Herald Publishing Association.

Cave, Sydney, M.A., D.D., The Doctrine of the Person of Christ, Gerald Duckworth & Co. LTD. London,  First published 1925, Seventh Impression 1962.  A historical investigation of the development of thinking on the subject. 259 pages.

Cullman, Oscar, The Christology of the New Testament, The Westminster Press, Philadelphia, PA,  Copyright by SCM Press LTD 1959, 1963.  Translated from the German Die Christologie des Neuen Testaments (J.C.B. Horh (Paul Siebect) Tubingen 1957) by Shirley C. Gutheir and Charles A.M. Hall).  See especially Part IV, “The Christological Titles Which Refer to the Pre-Existence of Jesus” pages 247-314.

Cupitt D. 1979. The debate about Christ. London, UK: SCM Press.

Dederen R. 2000. "Christ: His person and work." Handbook of Seventh-day Adventist theology, Commentary reference series, Vol. 12: 160-204. Hagerstown, MD: Review & Herald Publishing Association.

Dunn JDG. 1980; 1989. Christology in the making: A New Testament inquiry into the origins of the doctrine of the incarnation. Philadelphia, PE: Westminster Press.

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Ehrman Bart D. 1993. The orthodox corruption of Scripture: The effect of early Christological controversies on the text of the New Testament. Oxford, UK; New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Erikson, Millard J., Christian Theology (Unabridged, one-volume edition), Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, Michigan, Copyright 1983, 1984, 1985. See especially Part Three: “What God Is Like” with chapter 15: “God’s Three-in-Oneness: The Trinity” (pages 321-342).

Farley, Frederick. 1873. Unitarianism defined: The Scripture Doctrine of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. Boston, MA: American Unitarian Association. Indianapolis, IN: Christian Educational Services; http://www.CESonline.org; http://www.BiblicalUnitarian.com.

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Greer LF. 2002. "Atonement and the Revelation: Levitic Covenant underpinnings." The Jesus Institute Forum: http://www.jesusinstituteforum.org/LevCovRev.html.

Hodge, Charles, Systematic Theology, in three volumes, Volume 1, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids, Michigan, Reprinted, January 1979.  Chapter VI:  “The Trinity” (pages 442-478);  Chapter VII:  “The Divinity of Christ” (pages 483-520);  Chapter VIII:  “The Holy Spirit” (pages 522-534).

Hyndeman JS. 1824. Lectures on the Principles of Unitarianism. Alnwick. Reprinted 1994. Indianapolis, IN: Christian Educational Services; http://www.CESonline.org; http://www.BiblicalUnitarian.com.

Kee HC. 1970. Jesus in history: An approach to the study of the gospels. New York, NY: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc.

Krentz E. 1975. The historical-critical method. Guides to Biblical scholarship. Philadelphia, PA: Fortress Press.

Kushel K-J. 1992. Born before all time? The dispute over Christ's origin. Transl. John Bowden. New York, NY: Crossroad.

Lapide P. 1981. Jewish monotheism and Christian Trinitarian doctrine. Philadelphia, PE: Fortress Press.

Martin, Walter, The Kingdom of the Cults, Bethany House Publishers, Minneapolis, Minnesota, Copyright 1965, 1977, 1985.  Revised 1985. [See his treatment of Jehovah’s Witnesses in this book.]

Machen, J. Gresham, Christianity & Liberalism, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids, Michigan, Copyright, 1923, Owned by the Trustees u/w J. Gresham Machen.  Reprinted 1994.  pages 109-116 in the chapter “Christ”.

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Moltmann, Jurgen, The Trinity and the Kingdom, Harper & Row, Publishers, San Francisco,  Translated by Margaret Kohl from the original German edition, Trinitat und Reich Gottes (Munich: Christian Kaiser Verlag, 1980) This translation was first published in Great Britain by SMC Press, Ltd., London 1981.

Morgridge Morgridge, Charles. 1837. The True Believer's Defence, Against Charges Preferred By Trinitarians, for Not Believing in The Divinity of Chirst, The Deity of Christ, The Trinity, &c. Boston, MA: Benjamin H. Greene.

Norton, Andrews. 1877. A Statement of Reasons for Not Believing the Doctrines of Trinitarians. (10th ed.). Boston, MA: American Unitarian Association.

Ohlig K-H. 1999. Ein Gott in drei Personen? Vom Vater Jesu zum "Mysterium" der Trinität [One God in three persons? From Father of Jesus to the "Mystery" of the Trinity].  Mainz: Matthias Grünewald-Verlag.

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Pfandl, Gerhard. “The Trinity in Scripture,” Journal of the Adventist Theological Society, Volume 14, Number 2, Autumn 2003, pages 80-94.

Questions on Doctrine (Adventist Classic Library, Annotated Edition with Notes with Historical and Theological Introduction by George R. Knight), Andrews University Press, Berrien Springs, Michigan, Copyright 2003.  Original Edition (1957): Seventh-day Adventists Answer Questions on Doctrine prepared bya Representative Group of Seventh-day Adventist Leaders, Bible Teachers, and Editors, published by the Review and Herald Publishing Association.

Rees T. 1818. The Racovian Catechism of 1605.... London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown. Reprinted 1994. Indianapolis, IN: Christian Educational Services; http://www.CESonline.org; http://www.BiblicalUnitarian.com. Catechism published by the Polish Brethren, Unitarian Christians in Poland who started schools and communities during the 16th century, who were ultimately persecuted out of institutional existence and some forced into exile in Holland and England: Forefathers of religious liberty and the Enlightenment. This treasure was banned in various places and reprinted in English in 1818 by Rees.

Robinson, John A. T. 1963. Honest to God. Philadelphia, PE: Westminster Press. An excellent and stimulating discussion.

Rubinstein RE. 1999. When Jesus became God: The struggle to define Christianity during the last days of Rome. New York, NY; San Diego, CA; London, UK: Harcourt, Inc. An excellent historical recital of the battles in 3rd-5th century Christianity which resulted in the abandonment of monotheism and the deification of Jesus Christ.

Runia, Klaas, The Present-day Christological Debate (part of the Issues in Contemporary Theology series with I. Howard Marshall the series editor), Inter-Varsity Press, Downers Grove, IL, Copyright 1984.

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Strong, Augustus Hopkins, D.D., LL.D., Systematic Theology, Tree Volumes in One,  Fleming H. Revell Company, Old Tappan, New Jersey, Copyright 1907, Twenty-seventh Printing 1970.  Volume I, Part IV “The Nature, Decrees, and Works of God,” Chapter II “Doctrine of the Trinity” pages 304-352.

Torrey, R. A. (original Editor; updated by Charles L. Feinberg), The Fundamentals, The Famous Sourcebook of Foundational Biblical Truths;  Kregel Publications, Grand Rapids, Michigan 49501.  Copyright 1958, 1990 by Biola University, Published by Kregel Publications.  First Kregel Publications edition: 1958.  See “The Testimony of Christ to the Old Testament” by William Caven, D.D., LL.D pages 58-68;  “The Deity of Christ” by Benjamin B. Warfield, D.D., LL.D. pages 260-266; “The Virgin Birth of Christ” by Prof. James Orr, D.D. pages 268-277; “The God-Man” by John Stock, pages 278-292; “The Personality and Deity of the Holy Spirit” by R. A. Torrey, D.D., pages 310-315.Vick, Edward W.H., Jesus the Man, Southern Publishing Association, Nashville, Tennessee, Copyright 1979, 139 pages. (Part of “Studies in Adventist Theology,” Gottfried Oosterwal, Coordinating Editor).

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Williams, George Huntston, The Radical Reformation, The Westminster Press, Philadelphia, Copyright 1946 and 1952, 927 pages. Good resource on the Anabaptist Movement, including the story of Michael Servetus and the rise of Socinianism.

Wright, N.T., Jesus and the Victory of God, Fortress Press, Minneapolis, Minnesota, 1996.  See especially Chapter Thirteen, “The Return of the King,” pages 612-653.

Young, Norman H,. “Divinity Revealed in Humility,” The Essential Jesus, edited by Bryan W. Ball and William G. Johnsson, Pacific Press Publishing Association, Boise, Idaho, Copyright 2002, pages 161-204.

Historical-critical exegesis.  A mature historical-critical exegesis (HCE) combines two disciplines, history which aims to reconstruct the past, and literary critical analysis which aims to explicate the meaning of texts (Krentz, 1975; Barr, 1993). The Scriptures are a collection of documents surviving from the distant past, witnesses to far away places, remote languages, civilizations, cultures, and human beings who lived, loved, and died long ago. The fundamental axiom of the HCE ideal is adherence to the text – listening to the text on its own terms, and allowing the text and its context to determine its own meaning. This means deliberately stepping outside of our own concerns theological or otherwise, setting aside later traditions, and anachronistic interpretations. HCE does not take the place of other disciplines in Bible study, such as theology, philosophy, and worship or devotion, or the study of the enormous influence of Scripture in ecclesiology, church life, and the arts, but in no way can those disciplines be grounded epistemologically without historical-critical exegesis.

Historical-critical exegesis seeks the following basic goals which are of course never fully achieved (Barr, 1993; adapted after citation in Krentz, 1975):

• (1) Determination of the text – comparative textual analysis, critical consensus editions of all available manuscripts and variant readings.
• (2) Ascertaining the literary (/oral) form of the passage – literary criticism, form criticism, etc. This includes giving due weight to the absence of elements which have often traditionally been read into the text eisegetically. This also involves not only noting similarities but also differences between different Biblical texts (in wording and in thought and form).
• (3) Recovering the contemporary historical / life situation (Sitz im Leben) of the text – the contemporary life setting in a particular Biblical epoch as determined through chronology, archaeology, studies in contemporary culture and geography, etc.
• (4) Meaning of the words and idiom for original author and listener-reader – comparative contemporary linguistics, philology, and literature; contemporary cultural world of meaning and ideas.
• (5) Understanding the passage in its total context and in the background from which it emerged – contemporary historical events and movements, literary and traditional sources, contemporary cultural world of meaning and ideas, concerns of the original author and audience, editorial redaction, etc. It means also understanding the differential placement of stories and pericopes based on the author's own theological and rhetorical intentions.

In brief the methods of history may be summarized as collect, evaluate, relate-correlate, and narrate-communicate (Krentz, 1975):

• A. Collect – available historical sources and witnesses to an era or event
• Remains – tangible remnants or relics of the past, artifacts intended for immediate use
• Records – materials consciously produced to inform or shape contemporary or future views
• B. Evaluate (interrogate) – Dating and critical evaluation of significant sources, (especially inadvertent witnesses or nonintentional sources yielding more or other information than intended), for their
• Authenticity – the objectivity, veracity, and credibility of witnesses, their internal consistency, emotional/rhetorical levels, bias/prejudice, ability to communicate, intelligibility, possible motivations and viewpoints, etc.
• Integrity – the degree to which remains and records of the past have come down to us unimpaired and uncorrupted by transmission, ascertained levels of anachronism and subsequent intrusions and changes over intervening time, etc.
• C. Relate-correlate – Comparative analysis of contemporary and antecedent sources looking for convergences and divergences in form, event, thought, and ideals, etc.
• D. Narrate-communicate – "What happened?" "Why?" Reconstructing, describing, and interpreting the past in narrative form, which clearly states what is known, unknown, and the possible explanations. Historical narrative recognizes that explanation is imposed and not inherent in the data, and so must remain tentative, subject to revision.

• All behavior, beliefs, and phenomena in a particular culture must be validly understood on the basis of the standards, values, and world-view of that culture (and time), not judged by the standards or beliefs of another culture (or time).